Reynolds Averaged Navier Stokes (RANS)

Reynolds Averaged Navier Stokes (RANS) V1.5 Equation for ns changed(Removed time) Changes are bolded Before Computational Fluid Dynamics(CFD) was developed, theoretical studies on high swirling confined turbulent flows can only be validated by conducting experimental studies. These experimental studies require long leading time and high cost. Now, with the help of CFD, researchers are able to study these complex flows in a much shorter time and with a lower cost incurred. Many experimental studies have been conducted on the high swirling confined turbulent flows but little has been done on the computational modelling. Most of these intricate flow simulations are accomplished at the expense of high computational cost methods such as Large Eddy Simulations(LES) and Direct Numerical Simulations(DNS). Thus, a lower computational cost alternative will be very helpful in the studies of high swirling confined turbulent flows. Thus, this project will be using the Reynolds Averaged Navier Stokes (RANS) based turbulence models in ANSYS FLUENT to simulate the high swirling confined turbulent flows in two different test cases and the results validated with experimental data. The aims and objectives are discussed as follows: Aims and Objectives Aims To validate the accuracy of RANS based turbulence models for the simulation of high swirling confined turbulent flows. Objectives To simulate the high swirling confined turbulent flows using ANSYS FLUENT with different RANS turbulence models. To compare the numerical data from the simulations with the experimental data to validate the accuracy of the turbulence models. To understand the effect of the RANS turbulence models on the predicted results. Review of Confined Swirling Flows Confined swirling flow plays an important role in various engineering fields. For example, they can enhance the mixing process in the stirred tanks, improve the separation of particles in cyclones [1] and also increases the flame stability in gas turbine combustors. So, what is a swirling flow? A swirling flow is a flow where a swirl velocity that exists in the tangential direction other than the flow motion in the axial and radial directions. The swirl velocity of the flow plays a major role in the evolution and decay process of swirling flow motion but not the radial velocity of the flow as shown in a study by Beaubert et al. [2] A swirling flow consist of two types of rotational motion. A solid body rotation at the inner region near the centerline and a free vortex motion at the outer region. [14] Solid body rotation and free vortex motion respectively has its velocity directly and inversely proportional to the radius of the pipe at the centre of their axis of rotation as shown in Figure 1. Figure 1: Velocity profile of swirling flow in a pipe. [4] Confined swirling flow can then be categorized into subcritical and supercritical flows. A subcritical flow has a reverse flow at the exit and is very sensitive towards changes at the exit as shown experimentally by Escudier and Keller[11]. On the other hand, the supercritical flow has no reverse flow at the exit and is insensitive towards variation at the exit.[10] Subcritical flows are formed when the ratio of maximum swirl velocity to the averaged axial velocity exceeds unity was stated in a theory by Squire[12]. Review of Computational Fluid Dynamics(CFD) CFD is a methodology which is employed to study fluid flow using numerical analysis and algorithms to solve the governing flow equations. In the past, the field of fluid dynamics was made up of purely experimental and theoretical studies. CFD is considered the third approach in the studies of fluid mechanics and would complement the two existing methods. [5] The three main elements when implementing CFD are the pre-processor, solver and post-processor. The pre-processors task is to transform the input of a flow problem into a form that is suitable for the solver. During pre-processing, the geometry of the problem is defined and the flow domain is divided into smaller cells (meshing). The physical (eg: turbulence) and chemical phenomena that needs to be modelled are selected and the fluid properties are defined. Next, the boundary conditions are given to cells which interacts with the domain boundary. The solution to the flow problem is stored in the nodes in each cell. In the solver, the conservation equation containing the mass, momentum, energy and species is integrated over each cells. Then, the unknown variables of the equation are interpolated and substituted back into the equation. The solver then runs numerical techniques to solve the derivatives and flux in the cells. Lastly, the post-processor allows user to analyse the data obt ained by plotting graphs and observe the flow animation. [6] Review of Turbulence Flows All fluids in motion are governed by the conservation of mass equation and the Navier-Stokes equation. The latter equation relates the flow properties such as the velocity, pressure, density and temperature for a moving fluid. The conservation of mass equation and the incompressible Navier-Stokes equation (in Cartesian tensor notation) can be respectively written as Turbulence is shown to develop as an instability in the laminar flow through detailed analysis of the solutions for the Navier Stokes equation. [7]. In principle, Direct Numerical Simulation(DNS) can be used to simulate very accurate turbulent flow by solving the exact equations with the appropriate boundary conditions. However, it requires very large amount of computational power as this method has to represent all of the eddies from the smallest scale to the largest scale and the time step chosen must be small enough to resolve the fastest fluctuations. The turbulent eddies will be discussed in more detail in the next section. The two other methods that can be used to simulate the turbulent flows (with decreasing computational power and accuracy) would be the Large Eddy Simulation(LES) and turbulence modelling with Reynolds Averaged Navier Stokes equation (RANS). Basically, LES solves the governing equations partially as only the large eddies are solved using the governing equations and the filtered smaller eddies are modeled while RANS models the entire turbulence eddies and only the mean variables are calculated. For turbulence modelling, the minute details of the turbulent motion are not prioritized so only the average flow properties are solved. In a turbulent flow, the velocity field fluctuates randomly in both space and time. Despite the fluctuations, the time averaged velocity can be determined and the velocity field equation can be written as: () where is the time averaged velocity and is the fluctuating component in the velocity field. Other than the velocity, other flow properties can also be decomposed into its mean and fluctuating parts. In our simulations, the flow is assumed to be steady, have constant density and axially symmetric. Thus, the incompressible Reynolds Averaged Navier-Stokes (RANS) equations (in Cartesian tensor notation) can be written as Where is the Reynolds Stress tensor, which is a component of a symmetric second order tensor from the averaged process. The diagonal terms are normal stresses while the non-diagonal terms are shear stresses. The Reynolds Stress can be understood as the net momentum transfer due to velocity fluctuations. This term also provided unknown terms to be equation and thus, more equations have to be found to match the number of unknowns to solve the equations. A straightforward method of generating equations would be to create new sets of partial differential equations (PDEs) for each term using the original set of Navier-Stokes equation. This can be done by multiplying the incompressible NS equations by the fluctuating property and time averaging them to produce the Reynolds-Stress equation. By deriving the Reynolds Stress term, we can identify what is influencing the stress term but the problem with this approach is that more unknowns and correlations were generated and no new equations are formed to account for these unknowns. [7] Thus, these unknown terms have to be modelled to close the equation before they can be used. Review of Turbulence Eddies The velocity field fluctuations in the turbulence flows are actually the eddies in the flow. The eddies moving pass an object generates the turbulence kinetic energy and the length scale of the eddies, are determined by the diameter of the object. As the large eddy break down into smaller eddies, the turbulence kinetic energy will be passed down and eventually dissipated due to viscous forces in the flow. Thus, according to the Kolmogrov scales, the length and time scale of the smallest eddies depends on the rate they receive energy from the larger eddies, and the kinematic viscosity,. It is also noted that the rate of turbulence energy received is equal to the rate of turbulence energy dissipated so, . The Kolmogrov scales shows the length and time scale of the smallest eddies to be and respectively. [8] These expressions can then be used to determine the length and time scale ratio between the small and large eddies. () () From the equations above, we can conclude that the large eddies are several orders of magnitude larger than the small eddies. Thus, even at a low Reynolds number, the time and length ratio between the small and large eddies are significant enough to affect the number of elements and time step required to model the entire turbulent flow. Therefore, instead of solving all the eddies, turbulence modelling is required to reduce the amount of computational cost of CFD. Summary The understanding of the motions of confined swirling flows and characteristic of the subcritical and supercritical flows will be useful when explaining the simulation results. Before the simulation results are obtained, it is also important to identify the basic steps of running any CFD simulations which are the preprocessing, solving and post processing. DNS solves the exact NS equation while LES solves the equation for larger eddies and models the smaller eddies. The process of solving the exact equations takes up a lot of computational power as it would need to represent the all the turbulent eddies involved and a suitable time step has to be chosen to resolve the fluctuations. When compared to DNS and LES, RANS turbulence modelling requires the least computational power as it does not solve the exact NS equations but instead, models the entire turbulence eddy and only solves the mean average variables. The low computational cost of RANS turbulence modeling is the primary reason why this project has chosen it to simulate the confined swirling flows. However, the accuracy of this methods requires validation, which is the aim of this project. The RANS turbulence models created will be based on the PDEs of the Reynolds stress as a guideline as it shows how the Reynold stress behave. Thus, the next section will elaborate more about the RANS turbulence models that will be implemented in this project. The main objective of the RAN based turbulence models are to model the (Reynolds Stress tensor) and provide closure to the RANS equation. The three main categories of the turbulence models are linear eddy viscosity models, non-linear viscosity models and Reynolds Stress Model(RSM). [9] There are three types of linear eddy viscosity models: algebraic models, one equation models and two equation models. They are based on the Boussinesq hypothesis which models the Reynolds stress tensor to be proportional to the mean rate of strain tensor, by a coefficient named the eddy viscosity,. This infers that the turbulence flow field acts similarly to a laminar flow field. [10] (5) The second term of the right hand side of the equation above is required when solving turbulence models that needs to calculate the turbulent kinetic energy, k from the transport equations. The equation for k is half the trace of the Reynolds Stress tensor. For the algebraic turbulence models, no additional PDE equations are created to describe the transport of the turbulent flux and the solutions are calculated directly from the flow variables. An algebraic relation is used as closure based on the mixing length theory. The mixing length theory states that the eddy viscosity have to vary with the distance from the wall. However, the problem with these equations are that they do not account for the effects of turbulence history. In order to improve the turbulent flow predictions, an additional transport equation for k is solved which will replace the velocity scale and include the effects of turbulence flow history. For one and two-equation models, the modeled k equation is involved thus discussion on the exact k equation will first be done. The exact k equation is a PDE derived by multiplying the incompressible NS equations with , averaging it and multiply with . The exact k PDE equation obtained is The left hand side(LHS) terms are the material derivative of k which gives the rate of change of turbulent kinetic energy. The first term on the right hand side(RHS) is the production term and represents the turbulent kinetic energy that an eddy will gain due to the mean flow strain rate. The second term on the RHS represents the dissipation term which meant the rate at which the kinetic energy of the smallest turbulent eddy being transferred into thermal energy due to the work done by the fluctuating strain rate against the fluctuating viscous stresses. The third term on the RHS is the diffusion term which represents the diffusion of turbulent energy by molecular motion. The last term of the RHS is the pressure-strain term which signifies the tendency to redistribute the kinetic energy in the flow due to the turbulent and pressure fluctuations. In order to close and solve the k equation, the Reynolds Stress, dissipation, diffusion and pressure-strain term has to be specified. For the Reynolds Stress term, it is already mentioned at the beginning that it is based on the Boussinesq hypothesis. The eddy viscosity, is modelled similarly to how it was done for the algebraic models Where is a constant, the length scale of turbulence eddies, is similar the mixing length and velocity scale of the turbulence eddies is replaced by the square root of the turbulence kinetic energy, k. The equation above is an isotropic relation which means that it is assumed that the momentum transport is the same in all direction at any point. Next, the dissipation term is modelled based on the assumption that the rate of turbulence energy received is equal to the rate of turbulence energy dissipated. Thus, we can write the equation and since the equation is homogenous, it can be characterized by the length and velocity scale of turbulence eddies giving Where is a constant. For the diffusion and pressure-strain term, the sum is modelled based on the gradient diffusion transport mechanism as there is the pressure-strain term is small for incompressible flows. The gradient transport mechanism implies that there is a flux of k down the gradient. It is to help ensure that the solutions are smooth and a boundary condition can be applied on k when k is in the boundary. There is no Therefore, the equation shows Where is the turbulent Prandtl number and is normally equal to one. -not completed will talk about the modeled turbulent kinetic energy in one equation spalart allmaras -will talk about dissipation part for 2 equation model in k-e This test case is chosen because the flow was mapped and documented in detail as So et al was able to measure and document the flow in detail using a Laser Doppler Velocimetry(LDV) at 10 axial stations up to 40d downstream. Thus, the validation of the accuracy of the RANS turbulence models on confined high swirling flow can be done. Description of Test Case The flow consists of an annular high swirling stream projected into a pipe of uniform radius, R = 62.5mm with a central non-swirling jet of diameter, d = 8.7mm. The swirl number, S of the flow is calculated with Where U is the axial velocity and W is the swirl velocity. The swirl number just downstream of the swirl generator is approximately 2.25 which indicates that it is a high swirling flow and will cause an adverse pressure gradient at the centreline. The purpose of the non-swirling jet was to delay the occurrence of reverse flow due to the adverse pressure gradient along the centreline from 12d to 40d downstream from the inlet. Geometry (Computational Domain) The confined swirling flow in this case is a subcitical flow according to the rule of thumb of Squire mentioned in Section x. Thus, two different computational domains were used for the simulation of the flow to check if the exit geometry will affect the swirling flow simulated. Figure 2 (temporary figure) The first computational domain is the complete geometry of the pipe which consist of the computational inlet at x/d =1 and the constriction of 0.75R from x/d = 70 to the computational outlet at x/d = 90. The second computational domain is a cut off from the first domain at x/d = 55 where the constriction is removed. Meshing -have not completed it. Will be updated in the next revision. Boundary Conditions Inlet The inlet experimental measurements for the axial and tangential velocity and stresses are provided. However, the radial velocity component was not measured and is set to 0 rad/s. The radial stress is also not measured and was set equal to the tangential stress, whereas the three shear stresses are assumed to be zero. < graphs of prescribed to be added> Outlet Conditions at the outlet are not known prior to solving the flow problem. No conditions are defined at the outflow boundaries as ANSYS FLUENT will extrapolate the required information from the interior. It is assumed that the flow is fully developed at the exit end thus the outflow boundary condition is used. (dphi/dx|exit = 0) Wall The no slip condition is applied.

Ethics and Compensation Essay

Results of the Internal Revenue Service Exempt Organizations Executive Compensation Compliance Project had reviewed the compensation practices of several corporations in the United States, pointed the issues on tax compliance and further identified areas of abuse. On its report, high amounts of compensation were recorded in several cases, however the IRS by and large assessed them to be substantiated based on comparability data (McGookin, 2007). Several conspiracies are being worked on by the IRS regarding the executive compensation compliance aspect. It was those controversies, besetting the current compensation of the executives in particular, that have rendered the broad public in full skepticism, according to â€Å"The 2007 Wharton Economic Summit Panel† . The apparent frequency imposed by companies or corporations in redesigning their executive programmes, along with its long-term incentives, generally poses a grave predicament in the ethics of corporal business (McGookin, 2007). The principal issue of compensation at present is the way by which CEOs of large corporations in the US have made an amount of money from just one day on a work that an average employee can earn for a matter of year. According to the Associated Press survey, the total compensation of the major corporations have averaged a total of $10. 8 million, which is roughly 364 more times the salary of an average American worker. While executives continue to accumulate more wealth while in throne of service, workers underneath the rung, on the other hand were granted the first federal minimum wage increase. However, the minimum wage, which is only $5. 85 still falls underside where the minimum salary in real terms had tumbled a decade ago (Simon, 2007). An issue in † The Wall Street Journal† (2007) , moreover, had reported that there was an increase in the regularity of pay growth among workers in 2006. Furthermore, an increase on the salaries and bonuses of chief executives among the 350 US major corporations was likewise put in record. However, delving deeper into the matter of increases in compensation, it seems unjust that half of the executives working with several major US Corporations have enjoyed a total compensation, that which includes salaries, bonuses and stock options, which on the other hand was over a hundred times the average wage of a US worker. Such data proves that there is an apparent broadening of disparity between executive and average-earners’ compensation. The said data was supported by the Institute for Policy Studies and United for a Fair Economy wherein in one of their compilations, it was shown that a corporate CEO’s earnings in one day is comparatively equivalent to more than what average workers can make year round (McGookin, 2007 ) Provided such data, the manifestation of a complete American-executives-domination is put in line. To add further with the pleasure these executives enjoy, the value of their possible pensions were shown to have grown by an average of $ 1. 3 million (Simon, 2007). Clearly, a medium that has long been of significance in retaining, attracting and motivating individuals to work is the tool of â€Å"reward†. But reward shall be accorded in proper distribution to appropriate individuals because getting it wrong may put the potential of demotivation and/or loss of talent instead . Standard and Poor’s 500 compensation issue On a preliminary analysis done by the Corporate Library documented that the CEO of Standard and Poor’s 500 company made an average of total compensation amounting over $14. 78 million in 2006 (Simon,2007). The cumbersome issue and predicament regarding the executive compensation were highlighted in 2006, when a large amount of severance packages were apportioned to departing CEOs whose performance does not nearly qualify a standard. The remaining CEOs then were attacked by backdating scandals in relation with stock options in their companies. According to Simon (2007), the flaws in the compensation system were uncovered through the said backdating indignities, in which the seated CEOs are privileged to take what they like within their companies and the shareholders with impunity. Disney’s compensation issue Take for another example the compensation issues at Disney. Shareholders of Disney polled at a 45% no confidence vote for CEO Eisner regarding his re-election. Some investors were rankled to know that Eisner himself was the beneficiary of the board’s decision to double the CEO’s salary, which amounts to $2 million (The Pay Gap,2007). Despite the fact that Disney’s stock is improving, there substantiates an apparent and unnecessary relationship between shareholder value and executive compensation. Practically speaking, such relationship in the business arena allocates an unjust proportion of benefits towards the executives. A rise in the stock price is cordially adhered with the notion of welcome salvation for the employed executives but, tying everything to compensation or rewards, is the company’s performance in progress over time? Ethically, any switching in the approaches of putting management interests over that of the shareholder’s interest that Disney bargains into will not do any good for the company (The Pay Gap, 2007). Yahoo’s compensation issue Evidently, the high cost of primary executive wage has induced in recent years as the amount of wages likewise increase and stock options were luxuriously paid off. Terry Sernel of Yahoo Inc. gained a total of $71. 7 million in 2006, according to the AP filings. Roughly, such amount is estimated to be $20 million and 20% more of the gross box office take spearheaded by A-list actors as Brad Pitt or Leonardo DiCaprio (the Pay Gap, 2007).

Reflection on the History & Systems of Psychology Essay

Pre-modern, modern and postmodern frames of reference have all helped shape important, contemporary psychological theories and issues. In this paper I will attempt, in a reflective manner, to walk through and revisit the areas we covered in course, the end aim being to gain a measure of insight into where the field of psychology stands today, particularly with regard to oppressive forms of ethnocentric monoculturalism. In terms of pre-modern perspectives, in the course we first discussed historical issues concerning the mind-body problem. I stated the nature of the relationship between body and mind and whether they are one and the same or two distinct substances, which is the center of the debate between monists and dualist. Descartes, the most well known dualist, argued for a separation of mind from soul and body. Also an interactionist, Descartes held the mind influenced the body as much as the body impacted the mind (Goodwin, 2009). Plato, his predecessor from antiquity, was also a dualist and an interactionist arguably, and believed the body and soul/mind were temporarily at one during life; each came from a completely different place, the body from the material world and the soul from the world of ideas. At the moment of death, the body withered away in time and space, the soul or mind returning to the world of forms and there realizing universal truths (Wozniak, 1992). Delving deeper into pre-modern views of the mind-body problem I touched upon Spinoza. Spinoza, a contemporary of Descartes, dismissed Descartes’ two-substance view in favor of what is called double-aspect theory (Wozniak, 1992). Double-aspect theories hold the view that the mental and the physical realms are varying aspects of the same substance. For Spinoza, that single substance is God, perceived as the universal essence or nature of everything in existence. In Spinoza’s view, there is no partition of mind and body, therefore. Instead they are of a single substance, in a pre-established coordination, reflecting the divine essence. In reflection, I continue to side with Spinoza and double-aspect theory in terms of pre-modern perspectives. I do believe that there is a pre-established coordination between mind and body that is reflective of the divine creation. â€Å"I am therefore I think† is my continued response to Descartes. In terms of modern perspectives in the course we examined the origins of psychology as a subject discipline. During the course I stated that psychology first appeared as a subject discipline in 1879 when Wilhelm Wundt started a psychology lab in Germany at the University of Leipzig. The laboratory devoted itself to the analysis of conscious thought in its basic elements and structures, which was uncovered through a process of introspection (Gross, 1996). What differentiated this ‘new psychology’ at the time from philosophy was its use of measurement and control as well as its emphasis on the scientific method to study mental processes relevant to human consciousness. Due to his influence on Edward B. Titchener, Wundt’s frame of reference arguably helped give birth to structuralism. Indeed Wundt’s disciple, Titchener, is credited with developing and labeling structuralism in an 1898 paper called â€Å"The Postulates of a Structural Psychology (Goodwin, 2009). In the paper he compared and contrasted structuralism with functionalism, which he claimed infested most US universities, save Cornell where he was cultivating what would come to be  called the â€Å"the Cornell school of psychology.† Notwithstanding, Goodwin (2009) has stated that Titchener and the Cornell view of psychology was extremely narrow largely because of its insistence on introspection and due to Titchener’s attitude that his way was the only way, a position that often does not bode well in academia. In this vein and perhaps arrogantly so, Titchener, likened structuralism to anatomy, its purpose being analysis he surmised — whereas functionalism he likened to physiology, stating that functionalists examine how the mind is able to adapt one to his or her said environ ment, which to Titchener was a waste of time without a deep understanding of structure. As one needs to know the ins and outs of human anatomy before being able to fully delve into physiology, so thus was the  functionalist at a loss, in his view, without the ability to outline the structures of human consciousness via a highly difficult process of systematic, experimental introspection as stipulated by him in almost cult like exclusivity, which spawned criticism. Accordingly, his movement never gained the momentum it needed to win American hearts and minds, falling into the dustbin of history in favor of functionalism. Nevertheless, in spite of Titchener’s unpopularity in the US, his enduring contribution is that he helped create a place for the lab and experimental psychology in all colleges and universities with programs in psychology. While functionalists were also interested in looking at mental processes such as consciousness in so far as assessing human behavior in terms of how it aided people in adapting to ever-changing environments, they did not, unlike followers of Titchener, emphasize introspection (Goodwin, 2009). Psychologist James R. Angell, a follower of John Dewey, the founder of functionalism in America, became its most outspoken spokesperson, criticizing Titchener and drawing a sharp contrast to him in a 1907 popular paper called â€Å"The Province of Functional Psychology.† It was a damning response to Titchener’s 1898 paper. For Angell, the structuralist was  interested in the â€Å"what?† of conscious thought, whereas the functionalist psychologist wished to know the â€Å"how?† and â€Å"why?† of it, asking what is consciousness for? (Goodwin, 2009). This way of viewing psychology in terms of its practical applications, became an important influence in modern times, because it led to the study of topics such as developmental and abnormal psychology, in addition to examining the individual differences of mind, (which Titchener and the Cornell school remarkably had no interest in). When asking how psychology can be used to solve everyday problems in a practical way, we are taking from the functionalists and their movement. Perhaps the most prominent movement in the field of modern 20th century psychology was behaviorism. Behaviorism began essentially due to the work of Ivan Pavlov. Pavlov who did not consider himself a psychologist, but, rather a physiologist interested in the process of digestion in dogs, was awarded the Nobel Prize in 1904 (the year B. F. Skinner was born) in Physiology and Medicine. In the course of his research, Pavlov observed that the dogs would often start salivating before any food being given to them, when they would see the food or the food’s container, or when they heard the footsteps of the lab assistant who was on his way to feed them. His observations led to the study to what we now call classical conditioning (Gross, 1996). The first attempt to apply Pavlov’s findings on conditioning to humans was made by John B. Watson in a dubious and arguably unethical experiment on a small boy named Albert, showing that the fear of rats can be deliberately induced (Watson and Rayer, 1920). The experiment served to popularize a new behavioral approach to psychology that would within a decade become the dominant force in America, Watson its founder, propagator and publicist (Goodwin, 2008). To the modernist Watson (1913), psychology is an objective natural science,  its theoretical goal the prediction and control of behavior. Wundt and Titchener’s view on introspection has no place in its methods, nor is consciousness addressed or studied. There is no marked borderline between people and animals. Due to Watson’s input and influence cats, dogs, rats, and pigeons became the major source of psychological data. As ‘psychological’ now meant ‘behavior’ rather than ‘consciousness,’ animals that were easier to study and whose environments could be more readily controlled could replace people as experimental subjects (Gross, 1966). B. F. Skinner, also a behaviorist and modernist, went steps further than Pavlov and Watson, casting behavior in a more interactive light. He made a distinction between respondent and operant behavior and argued that most animal and human behavior is not brought about in the way Pavlov and Watson indicated and surmised. Skinner, like Edward Thorndike before him, was interested in how animals operate on their environment and how this operant behavior brings about particular consequences that can determine the likelihood of that behavior being repeated. In experiments he used a variation of Thordike’s puzzle-box, a Skinner box, which was made for a rat or a pigeon to do things in, rather than escape from. Fundamentally, Skinner saw the learner as much more actively involved than did Pavlov or Watson, for whom behavior was due to stimuli, unconditioned stimuli before learning and conditioned stimuli after learning. In addition to behaviorism, modern views of psychology took twists and turns. As a reaction to both Titchener’s structuralism and Watson’s behaviorism, the Gestalt psychologists of the 1920s and 1930s in Germany and Austria were primarily concerned with perception and held that perceptions could not be deconstructed in the way that Wundt and Titchener wanted to do with thought, and that behaviorists had sought for with behavior. Their belief could be  succinctly stated as follows: ‘the whole is greater than the sum of its parts’ (Gross, 1996, p.3). The whole is essentially destroyed when you break down perception and behavior into parts, the Gestalt psychologists held. There are organizing principles of perceptual organization which were voiced by Gestalt’s founder Max Wertheimer. These principles are frequently highlighted in units on perception in general psychology textbooks and are as follows: the principle of proximity, the principle of similarity, the principle of continuation. All of the organizing principles have in common what is called the law of simplicity or what Gestaltists term Prà ¤gnanz. This refers to the tendency for perceptions to mirror reality as closely as possible (Goodwin, 2009). In the course I gave an example of gestalt thinking, which in reflection I would like to return to as it clearly remains in mind. I used the example of a bus stopping at a bus stop in one’s neighborhood. On a given day the bus stops at the same corner the person is accustomed to, and is recognized to be that bus. The person gets on, but has made a mistake. She did not realize that there was a route change that morning and the bus she took was numbered differently. What gives? Is it only a matter of not paying attention? In Gestalt inspired, top-down conceptually driven processing, we begin with one’s prior knowledge, motivations, expectations and beliefs. In the bus example, the inability to see and decipher or register a different number on the bus and get on it, means it was recognized it to be the customary bus due to top-down processing (Danner, 2009). If one were to notice the different bus number, however, that would entail bottom-up processing, because such processing is data driven. The different number is perceived in terms of information in the sensory input, in conjunction with top-down processing, revealing to the person that it is not the customary bus. Perhaps after realizing her mistake, the person in  the example will be more careful next time, thereby exercising more bottom-up processing. If Austria was home to some of Gestalt’s most prominent members and adherents, it was also home to Sigmund Freud, the father of psychoanalysis. Freudian psychoanalytic theory was the first to state the significance of innate drives and define abnormal and normal behavior in relationship to the role of the unconscious mind. Its importance is that the theory of personality popularized contextualizing human behavior in terms of the id, ego, and superego, notating development in five psychosexual stages. Each stage was marked by shifts in what Freud believed were the underlying modes of gratification: oral, anal, phallic, latency and genital (Glassman, 2000). In reflection, I continue to find merit in Freud’s concept of stages for sure. I would still prefer to call them development stages, however, and not necessarily put a sexual meaning on them, as Freud and his supporters have done and continue to do. There is no need to detail the well-known limitations and criticisms of Freudian theory, which according to Glassman (2000) are its falsifiability, the great deal of emphasis put on case studies, and its cultural bias towards women. Regardless of such naysaying, his supporters would passionately argue for and be adamant about such a sexual narrative of the human person, which if not fodder, certainly has entertainment value. In fact, Freudian theory is fascinating to me largely due to the dramatic (almost cinematic) conflicts and challenges that mark each psychosexual stage. Perhaps the most well-known of these is the Oedipal conflict (which occurs in the so-called phallic stage). It was interesting to read that some analysts calle d the female variant, the Electra conflict, but Freud himself did not use the term (see Freud 1924). Perhaps the most attractive modern theory of personality, in my view, would belong to Carl Rogers. In Carl Roger’s theory, a person is the source of his  or her basic needs such as food and water. He or she is also the source of a growth motive which he called an actualizing tendency, which is an innate drive that is reflective of the desire to grow, to develop and to develop one’s capabilities (Glassman, 2000). It is the actualizing tendency that stimulates creativity, causing a person to seek out new challenges and skills that motivate healthy growth in one’s lifetime (Gross, 1996). According to Rogers (1961, but originally proposed in 1947): Whether one calls it a growth tendency, a drive towards self-actualization, or a forward moving direction tendency, it is the mainspring in life†¦ It is the urge which is evident in all organic and human life – to expand, extend, become autonomous, mature and develop. In reflection, I continue to feel that Roger’s influence and continuing popularity in the psychotherapeutic community give his theories merit. APA members have been asked which psychotherapist they believe to me the most influential figure in the field (Smith, 1982). In 2006, this survey repeated in the Psychotherapy Networker. In both surveys, Carl Rogers was the â€Å"landslide† choice. While this does not prove Rogers to be correct, certainly it gives his theory of motivation more credence than not, increasing its believability. Certainly, I feel influenced by Rogers as I move forward in my career. While Roger’s theory of an actualizing tendency and the overall nature of the client-centered approach may be controversial due to its allowance to let the client call the shots and as stated by Goodwin (2009) for its overemphasis on the the self at the expense of the importance of the community, in addition to being clearer what it was against than what it was for, it is nevertheless, a credible postulation in terms of its application in therapy and remains my preference over Freud. Accordingly, I continue to feel that all clients  innately wish to be successful in life and to be praised as contributors to their own selfactualization. They wish to expand their knowledge and achieve  higher levels of success beneath all the guises that seem otherwise. When clients are not performing to their fullest potential, praise and support can help ignite the actualizing tendency in a manner that would otherwise have remained dormant. When exploring postmodern views of psychology we have to inherently speak about cultural narratives and meta-narratives. What is psychology today and who defines it? What is psychology’s story, who told that story historically, and who gets to tell it today? When we look at psychology as a practice, historically and today, is important to bring to the fore the ethnocentric monocultural aspects that were oppressive to women and continue to be to minority groups in reinforcing white male Euro-American culture as the normative and desirable culture. Indeed, therapists and helping professionals should try to help deconstruct and unveil monoculturalism whenever it rears its despicable head. When oppressive forms such as heterosexism, ageism, gender and sexism come to the fore in therapy, for example, therapists should not reinforce them but try to encourage reflection on such prejudices with the aim being for the client to indentify for what it is – and to grow accordingly. The field of psychology itself is not immune but remains at risk to the debacle of monoculturalism. According to Yutrzenka, Todd-Bazemore and Caraway (1999) even though the data forecast that by 2050, ethnic minorities will make up over 50% of the US population, this quickly changing demographic has minimal effect on the number of ethnic minority psychologists. This is particularly true for Native Americans, who are far more underrepresented than any other ethnic body. Though the APA as stated by Goodwin (2009), is vigorously addressing this entire issue at present, with such efforts to be praised, still the legacy of ethnocentric monoculturalism is a stain on the profession, and will remain so until  significant numbers of minority psychologists abound. In spite of the barriers confronting them, women and minorities have made many notable, valuable and vital contributions to the field of psychology. During the course I discussed Eleanor Gibson who received the National Medal of Science in 1992 for a lifetime of research on topics dealing with the development of depth perception to the fundamentals involved in reading, faced discrimination while at Yale from psychologist Robert Yerkes who wanted no females in his lab (Goodwin, 2009). While she was able to get her PhD there under the guidance of the neobehaviorist Clark Hull, she unfortunately went on to experience difficulties at Cornell (where her husband had gained a position) forced into an unpaid research associate position in spite of winning competitive and prestigious research grants. As a result of these grants, however, she was able to carry out pioneering studies on depth perception with Richard Walk. When Cornell, home to Titchener’s legacy, removed its nepotism rules in 1966, only then did she become a full professor. Furthermore, as discussed in the course, African-Americans have also made outstanding contributions to psychology. Kenneth and Mamie Phipps Clark again come to mind in terms of their best known research titled Racial identification and preference in Negro children (Goodwin, 2009). In this research it was shown that black children showed a preference for white dolls over black ones when asked which they would like to play with and looked more like. The Clarks concluded, according to Goodwin (2009) that one insidious effect of racial segregation was its negative influence on African-American self-esteem. As a result of this research, in part, the Supreme Court was compelled to do the right thing and reverse the racist separate but equal doctrine in Brown v. Board of Education. The Clarks’ contribution to psychology and the contributions of other AfricanAmericans preceding them were not without struggle. Their mentor at Howard University, Francis Sumner faced huge obstacles when attempting to get a graduate degree and gain employment in academia. African-Americans have often had their basic intellectual abilities questioned (Goodwin, 2009). The legacy of white racism and of the field of psychology’s complicity by not taking a firmer stand until only recently is without question a significant reason why African-Americans remain heavily underrepresented in the profession, in spite of the gains made for women. 60 percent of doctorates in psychology are awarded to women today, while Native Americans as we discussed and African-Americans continue to be awarded a paltry percentage in turn. Such dismal figures have nothing to do with intelligence. We know that early intelligence tests were normed on just Caucasian, middle-class populations and only recently has such bias been addressed and perhaps abated. This also was the case for the MMPI personality tests as well. In the case of the MMPI, many of the original items became dated and according to Kassin (2008), to bring the test up to the 21st century and more postmodern views, new items were written in, and a more diverse cross-section of the US was sampled. The result of that updating is the newer 567-item version called the MMPI-2. In reflection, my guess is that similar advances have been made or are being considered in IQ testing as well; otherwise we would have to call into question whether biased IQ tests are valid for minority groups. Accordingly, great care should be taken when formulating test questions as well as interpreting the results of test-takers from different cultural groups and urban tribes. Fundamentally, it is crucial that test makers be made aware of cultural differences when putting together IQ test questions, as recommended for the MMPI (Church 2001). Exercising caution does not mean  minority groups are treated with kid gloves, but rather that a lens of understanding is in place — and that can come about as a result of the test makers and assessors informing themselves. Otherwise an IQ test’s validity for minority groups is at issue. Pre-modern, modern and postmodern frames of reference have all helped shape important, contemporary psychological theories and issues. Accordingly, I have attempted in a reflective manner to revisit the areas of psychology’s history we covered in course. If psychology as a profession is to continue to grow and develop, it will occur through a similar process of reflection, followed by action. It is important for psychology to know its origins, its history and respective story. However, in realization of the depth of ethnocentric monoculturalism, its leadership, particularly in the APA, must act on the call to bring about the inclusion of more minorities. Otherwise, the oppressive stain of monoculturalism shall abound and continue to blemish the profession we hold dear. References Angell, J.R. (1904). Psychology. New York: Holt. Church, A.T. (2001). Personality measurement in cross-cultural perspective. Journal of Personality, 69, 979-1006. Danner, N. (2011). Psychology: ORG5001 survey of psychology I. Boston: Pearson Learning Solutions. Freud, S. (1924) A General Introduction to Psychoanalysis. New York: Washington Square Press (reprinted 1952). Glassman, W (Ed.). (2000) Approaches to psychology. Philadelphia: Open University Press. Goodwin, C.J. (2009) A history of modern psychology (3rd ed.). Hoboken, NJ: Wiley. Gross, R. (Ed.). (1996) Psychology, the study of mind and behavior. London: Hodder & Stoughton. Kassin, S., (2008). Psychology in Modules: ORG 5002 Survey of psychology II. New York: Pearson Custom Publishing. Rogers, C.R. (1961) On becoming a person. Boston: Houghton Mifflin. Smith, D. (1982) Trends in counseling and psychology. American Psychologist, 37, 802–809. Watson, J.B. (1913) Psychology as the behaviorist views it. Psychological Review, 20, 15877. Watson, J.B. & Rayneer, R. (1920) Conditioned emotional reactions. Journal of Experimental Psychology, 3, 1-14. Wozniak,R. (1992) Mind and body: Renà © Descartes to William James. Retrieved from http://www.qcc.cuny.edu/socialsciences/ppecorino/INTRO_TEXT/Chapter%206%20MindBody/DUALISM.htm. Yutrzenka, B.A., Todd-Bazemore, E., & Caraway, S.J. (1999). Four winds: The evolution of culturally inclusive clinical psychology training for Native Americans. International Review of Psychiatry, 11, 129- 135. ProQuest: 43479524.

Application Of The Library Management System - 1395 Words

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